INTRODUCTION

Teaching is always a dynamic activity. It unfolds a world of knowledge and information, experience and erudition (Chakrabarti, 1998). Effective teaching requires more than straightforward teaching methods. Teachers need to know their students well and be able to adapt their teaching styles to a particular classroom and to individual students. (Elliott et al, 2000).

Effective teachers are those who achieve the goals they set for themselves or have set for them by others. An effective teacher must possess the knowledge and skills needed to attain the goals and must be able to use that knowledge and those skills appropriately if the goals are to be achieved. (Anderson, 1991).

Presently, effective teaching and student learning has been a central of current reform movements. The present view on effective teaching is defined by those behaviour patterns that promote desired student outcomes such as good grades, better attitudes and improved skills (Borich, 1996).

There are many researches being conducted on effective teaching abroad but in Pakistan there are few meaningful studies on effective teaching from the model given by Borich. The training of the teachers is traditional and latest techniques to improve teacher’s performance are rarely. Majority of the teachers do not know the key behaviors and helping behaviors that influence student learning nor can they use those behaviors in the class room instruction to improve the performance of the students. If teachers are expected to teach the students according to these behaviours. Initially, their teaching practices must be studied from the latest perspective of effective teaching to identify the areas needing improvement.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

No system of education can rise above the teachers who serve it, its quality ultimately depends upon the quality and efforts of teachers. Teacher is a key stone of the arch of national education, is the efficient hard working, honest teacher who is fully conscious of the fact that he is the trust of his nations suitability, progress and reputation for training and up bringing of the nations youth are placed in his hands. Teachers are the backbone of the nation. No nation can think of progress without the efforts of its teachers. The teacher is the planner, messenger, supervisor, evaluator, motivated, guide and human architect. There is no replacement of the teacher in education system. Here the teachers have the eye contact with students and clarification of any points is immediate. There are little progress without education poverty. Illiteracy breads poverty and poverty breads revolution and crime.

Teacher is a Prophet, teacher is an artist, teacher is a friend, teacher is a citizen, teacher is an interpreter, teacher is a builder and teacher is a believer.

In minds of the students,

1. Teacher must be an ideal person.

2. Teacher is a personification of the reality.

3. He is co-worker God in perfecting man.

4. He is the priest of man spiritual heritage.

5. He is perfactor of mind.

6. He is the maker of democracies.

7. He is the apostle of peace and progress.

8. He is the philosopher, friend and guide.

9. He is the compendium of all virtue.

10. He is the spiritual symbol of right conduct.

11. He possesses the best spiritual qualities of mankind (Safiullah, 2001).

Teacher is like an artist who blends colour and texture into a painting to produce a coherent impression. The effective teacher blends key behaviours to different degrees to promote student achievement. This requires orchestration and integration of the key and helping behaviours into meaningful patterns and rhythms that can achieve the goals of instruction within your classroom (Borich,1996).

A good teacher is kind, listens to you, encourages you, has faith in you, keeps confidences, likes teaching children, likes teaching their subject, takes time to explain things, helps you when you are stuck, tells you how you are doing, allows you to have your say, does not give on you, cares for your opinion, makes you feel clever, treats people equally, stands up for you, makes allowances, tells the truth, is for giving (Mcber, 2000).

Effective teachers respond to pupils and others as individuals with unique gifts and talents. Having tuned in pupils, teachers can sensitively frame approaches and tailor materials to take account of others strengths, and the things that may have an adverse impact on learning. They may also identify enthusiasms or interests that can be used as a spring board for further learning. Effective teachers show that team working matters because co-operative effort is important in learning and later life. This sort of modelling conveys the importance and value of belonging to a community and being involved with others (McBer, 2000).

Good teachers are not only effective role models; they also constantly keep in mind that their behaviour both intentional and unintentional can profoundly effect what students learn above all, good teachers know how to motivate students to learn, A teacher’s responsibility goes beyond presenting lessons; the teacher is a model for students and has a profound effect on students attitude, beliefs and behavior.(Crowl et all, 1997).

Past Research On Teacher Personality Characteristics

Researchers have been trying to identify the personality characteristics associated with the superior teachers, e.g. those who have won many distinguished awards etc. Following characteristics among superior teachers were found:

· They frequently mention liking for teaching.

· They express admiration of such qualities as friendliness, permissiveness, definiteness and fairness in teachers.

· They dislike in teachers such qualities as arrogance, intolerance, sarcasm, and partiality.

· They typically appear to be accepting and generous in their appraisals of other persons and to see the good points of a person rather than the bad.

· They express satisfaction with teaching and intend to continue teaching indefinitely.

· They frequently engaged in teaching activity as a child (for example, they taking charge of the class in the absence of the teacher).

· They frequently made their decision to become teachers even before enrolling in college.

· They enjoyed school when they were students.

· They showed superior accomplishment in school.

· They report large number of teachers among the parents and relatives.

· They report participation in religious activities.

· They enjoy activities with friends but prefer small groups.

· They frequently are members and officers of clubs.

· They are married (85% of group).

· They are interested and active in literacy affairs, such as writing poetry or books.

· They are more emotionally stable than the average adult.

· They are more friendly than the average adult.

· They are more cooperative and agreeable than the average adult.

· They are more restrained than the average adult.

· They are more objective than the average adult.

· They are more tolerant than the average adult.

· They are more inclined to “try to give a good impression” than the average adult.

· They are more interested in social service than the average adult.

· They are less interested than the average adult (Mohan, 1992).

The past research has focused on measuring various attitudes and personality traits of teachers, with some attempts to relate these to supervisor’s estimates of classroom success. Often, the studies simply intercorrelate various tests of teacher attitudes, interests, intelligence, and so forth (Averch et all,1972).

2.5 Research on teaching effectiveness

Despite seventy-five years of research on the topic relatively little is known about effective teaching. Advances in methodology and conceptualization have begun to make a difference in the last fifteen years or so, but the research is still in its infancy.

(Sadker and Sadker, 1997).

On the basis of a study of several case histories of teachers, good teachers exemplified several characteristics, e.g., are alert about their surroundings they have deep convictions about the worth of their profession they are unaware of restrictions, limitations, indignities and innuendoes in their profession which often irk their follow teachers and lastly they are very fond of their pupils (Mohan, 1992).

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

.The main purpose of the study was to compare teaching effectiveness of two schools at primary level.

3.1 POPULATION

Population of the study comprised of 5th class students including girls and boys studying in Beacon house School and The City School located in Islamabad city.

3.2 SAMPLE

The sample of the study consisted of 100 students from the above population. The sample students were selected randomly. Sample of this study included 50 boys and 50 girls from each school. Sample of the study was chosen from Beacon house School and The City School through random sampling.

3.3 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Research instrument to measure teacher effectiveness was prepared. The questionnaire consisted of 30 items related mainly to five key behaviours and five helping behaviours in the light of ‘Formative Observation of Effective Teaching Practices Instrument’ by Borich (1996). In this way the students get their opinion about the teacher effectiveness of both the schools. In addition, previous three years results of the sample school were also obtained in the study in order to relate the results to teaching effectiveness.

3.4 DATA COLLECTION

The following procedure was adopted in order to collect data:

1 Firstly The City School was visited and had a meeting with the principal. The questionnaire was delivered to the students. The students were told about the purpose of the study and the questionnaire was administered individually to each student. All the students responded to the questionnaire delightfully and attentively. The questionnaire was collected after one week.

2 After few days Beaconhouse School was visited. The researcher had to visit this school again and again for data collection. It took three weeks for the collection of data.

3 In addition, previous three years results of both the schools were also obtained to relate the results to teaching effectiveness.

3.5 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

The data collected by the researcher through research instrument were tabulated, analyzed and interpreted in the light of the objectives of the research study and then percentages and statistical technique (chi square) was used on each item of the questionaire to draw inferences about whole population. To summarize the scores obtained from student response on each item, the mean and standard deviation of the scores were calculated.

The formula for calculating chi square value is stated as follows:

x2 = Σ( fo-fe)2 (Gravette ,2000)

fe

Where fo = Frequency observed

Fe = Frequency expected

The level of significance selected was 0.05.

The previous three years results of the schools were used to relate the results to teaching effectiveness. These results were compared to check the teaching effectiveness. For this purpose mean and standard deviation was calculated. For comparison t-test was applied.

Formula for t-test is stated as follows:

t = (M1-M2)-0

SED

Chapter 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The study aimed at measuring the teaching effectiveness of The City School and Beaconhouse School in Islamabad. The data collected through research instrument and schools record was tabulated, analyzed and interpreted in the light of the objective of the study. The same is being presented in the following pages.

Table 1: The teachers inform the students about what they expect from them

at the end of the each lesson.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 38 12 50 13.52*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df=1 c2 value at 0.05 level =3.841

Table 1 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “The teachers inform the students about what they expect from them at the end of the each lesson” is accepted.

Table 2: The teachers inform the students about the importance of the

topic.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 48 2 50 42.32*

Beacon house school 49 1 50 46.08*

*Significant df=1 c2 value at 0.05 level =3.841

Table 2 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “do teachers inform the students about the importance of the topic ” is accepted.

Table 3: While introducing the lesson, the teachers tell the students what

be will teach?

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 49 1 50 46.08*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 3 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “While introducing the lesson, the teachers tell the students what be will teach? ” is accepted.

Table 4: The teachers test previous knowledge at the beginning of the

lesson?

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 34 16 50 6.48*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 4 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers test previous knowledge at the beginning of the lesson ” is accepted.

Table 5: During teaching, the teachers give the students clear, step-by-

step information.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 48 2 50 42.32*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 5 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at .05 level. Hence the statement “during teaching, the teachers give the students clear, step-by-step information ” is accepted.

Table 6: The teachers teaching is according to the students level.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 48 2 50 42.32*

Beacon house school 35 15 50 32.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 6 indicates that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “the teachers teaching is according to the students level” is accepted.

Table 7: The teachers reteach the previous lesson when necessary?

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 49 1 50 46.08*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 7 clarifies that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers reteach the previous lesson when necessary ” is accepted.

Table 8: The teachers give the summary at the end of the lesson.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 27 23 50 0.32*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00**

not *Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

**Significant

Table 8 indicates that in case of The City School c2 value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers give the summary at the end of the lesson ” is rejected.

In case of Beaconhouse School c2 value was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers give the summary at the end of the lesson” is accepted.

Table 9: The teachers get your attention before the lesson.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 48 2 50 42.32*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 9 clarifies that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers get your attention before the lesson ” is accepted.

Table10: The teachers teach with enthusiasm and animation through

change in eye contact, voice and gestures.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 41 9 50 20.48*

Beacon house school 48 2 50 42.32*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 10 indicates that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers teach with enthusiasm and animation through change in eye contact, voice and gestures ” is accepted.

Table 11: During the lesson, the teachers use various activities such as

questioning, discussion and practice.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 44 6 50 28.88*

Beacon house school 49 1 50 46.08*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 11 clarifies that x2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “during the lesson the teachers use various activities such as questioning, discussion and practice” is accepted.

Table 12: The teachers reward and praise the students on their good

Performance.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 40 10 50 18.00*

Beacon house school 49 1 50 46.08*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 12 indicates that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers reward and praise the students on their good performance ” is accepted.

Table 13: The teachers get the participation of the students in the class.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 49 1 50 46.08*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 13 shows that x2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers get the participation of the students in the class ” is accepted.

Table 14: The teachers maintain class discipline.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 48 2 50 42.32*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 14 clarifies that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers maintain class discipline ” is accepted.

Table 15: The teachers handle misbehaviour students in the class calmly

without disturbing the lesson or class.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The City School 30 20 50 1.00*

Beacon House School 45 5 50 32.00**

not *Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

**Significant

Table 15 indicates that in case of The City School c2 value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “the teachers handle misbehaviour students in the class calmly without disturbing the lesson or class ” is rejected.

In case of Beaconhouse School c2 value was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “the teachers handle misbehaviour students in the class calmly without disturbing the lesson or class” is accepted.

Table 16: The teachers teach strictly according to the syallabus.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 33 17 50 5.12*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 16 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers teach strictly according to the syallabus ”? is accepted.

Table 17: The teachers teach by telling.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 47 3 50 38.72*

Beacon house school 33 17 50 5.12*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 17 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers teach by telling ” is accepted.

Table 18: The teachers teach by asking.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The City School 34 16 50 6.48**

Beacon House School 24 26 50 0.08*

**Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

*notSignificant

Table 18 indicates that in case of The City School c2 value was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers teach by asking ” is accepted.

In case of Beaconhouse School c2 value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers teach by asking” is rejected.

Table 19: The teachers give weekly and monthly tests regularly.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 44 6 50 28.88*

Beacon house school 49 1 50 46.08*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 19 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers give weekly and monthly tests regularly ” is accepted.

Table 20: The teachers provide practice immediately after teaching.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 39 11 50 15.68*

Beacon house school 48 2 50 42.32*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 20 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers provide practice immediately after teaching ” is accepted.

Table 21: The teachers correct the wrong answers of the students in a non- threatening way.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The City School 31 19 50 2.88*

Beacon House School 39 11 50 15.68**

not *Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

**Significant

Table 21 indicates that in case of the City School c2 value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers correct the wrong answers of the students in a non-threatening way ”is rejected.

In case of Beaconhouse School c2 value was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers correct the wrong answers of the students in a non-threatening way” is accepted.

Table 22: The teachers use group or individual learning when needed.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 41 9 50 20.48*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 22 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers use group or individual learning when needed ” is accepted.

Table 23: The teachers encourage the students for their good performance

in the class?

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 45 5 50 32.00*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 23 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers encourage the students for their good performance in the class ” is accepted.

Table 24: The teachers circulate and move around in the class while the

students are busy in seat work.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 47 3 50 38.72*

Beacon house school 50 0 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 24 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers circulate and move around in the class while the students are busy in seatwork ” is accepted.

Table 25: The teachers teach the lesson with the previous knowledge of

the students.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 37 13 50 11.52*

Beaconhouse school 49 1 50 46.08*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 25 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers teach the lesson with the previous knowledge of the students ” is accepted.

Table 26: Do the teachers correct your wrong responses immediately?

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 35 15 50 8.00*

Beacon house school 11 39 50 15.68*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 26 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers correct your wrong responses immediately ” is accepted.

Table 27: The teachers teach the lesson in small steps.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 42 8 50 23.12*

Beacon house school 46 4 50 35.28*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 27 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers teach the lesson in small steps ” is accepted.

Table 28: The teachers move from one topic of the lesson to the next topic

by telling you about it.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 32 18 50 3.92*

Beacon house school 46 4 50 35.28*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 28 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers move from one topic of the lesson to the next topic by telling you about it ” is accepted.

Table 29: The teachers tell the correct answers.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The city school 32 18 50 3.92*

Beacon house school 30 20 50 50.00*

*Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

Table 29 shows that c2 value in both cases was found to be more than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers tell the correct answers ” is accepted.

Table 30: The teachers ask questions to get the right answers.

Schools Yes No Total c2

The City School 34 16 50 6.49**

Beaconhouse School 20 30 50 2.00*

**Significant df =1 c2 value at 0.05 level=3.841

*notSignificant

Table 30 indicates that in case of The City School c2 value was found greater than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers ask questions to get the right answers ” is acceptable.

In case of Beaconhouse School c2 value was found less than the table value at 0.05 level. Hence the statement “ the teachers ask questions to get the right answers” is rejected.

Comparison of the teaching effectiveness of The City School and Beaconhouse School Islamabad.

Ho: There is no significant of difference between the mean scores of The City School and Beaconhouse School on annual results of 2002.

Table 31: Significance of difference between the mean scores of The City

School and Beaconhouse School on the results of 2002.

Schools N df Mean SD SED t-value

The City School 26 25 79.58 7.69 21.931 0.25*

Beaconhouse School 23 22 74.09 6.29

*notSignificant df =47 c2 value at 0.05 level=2.02

Table 31 shows that t-value was found to be 0.25 which less than the table value. Hence the null hypothesis, “there is no significant difference between the mean scores of the City School and Beaconhouse School on annual results of 2002” is rejected. Thus both the schools could be treated as equel.

Ho: There is no significant of difference between the mean scores of The City School and Beaconhouse School on annual results of 2003.

Table 32: Significance of difference between the mean scores of The City

School and Beaconhouse School on the results of 2003.

Schools N df Mean SD SED t-value

The City School 25 24 77.80 7.69 21.570 0.05*

Beaconhouse School 26 25 76.69 8.23

*notSignificant df =49 c2 value at 0.05 level=2.01

Table 32 shows that t-value was found to be 0.05 which less than the table value. Hence the null hypothesis, “there is no significant difference between the mean scores of The City School and Beaconhouse School on annual results of 2003” is rejected. Thus both the schools could be treated as equel.

There is no significant of difference between the mean scores of The City School and Beaconhouse School on annual results of 2004.

Table 33: Significance of difference between the mean scores of The City

School and Beaconhouse School on the results of 2004.

Schools N df Mean SD SED t-value

The City School 21 20 78.47 9.07 21.551 0.47*

Beaconhouse School 25 24 68.24 8.81

*notSignificant df =44 c2 value at 0.05 level=2.02

Table 33 shows that t-value was found to be 0.47 which less than the table value. Hence the null hypothesis, “there is no significant difference between the mean scores of The City School and Beaconhouse School on annual results of 2004” is rejected Thus both the schools could be treated as equel.

SUMMARY

The main purpose of the conducting study was to identify teaching behaviors that are ineffective in teaching learning process.

A sample of 100 students (50 from each schools) including girls and boys from the population were selected. In order to measure teaching effectiveness a questionnaire consisting of 30 items were prepared, which related mainly to five key behaviors and five helping behaviors in the light of ‘Formative Observation of Effective Teaching Practices Instrument’ by Borich (1996). Each school was visited personally. The data was collected, analyzed and interpreted in the light of objectives of the study. The analysis of data are presented in the percentages and Chi square. The level of significance selected for the study was 0.05 level. In addition, previous three years results of the sample schools was also obtained from school record in order to relate the results to teaching effectiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

In the light of the findings of the study the following conclusions were drawn.

1 The responses of the primary level students of Beaconhouse School was found

better than that of The City School students towards effective teaching.

2. For the teaching effectiveness the teachers of The City School need to give the summary at the end of the lesson properly.

3. For the teaching effectiveness the teachers of The City School need to handle the misbehaviors of students in the class calmly without disturbing the lesson or class.

4. Teachers of Beaconhouse School needs to teach by asking from the students.

5. For the teaching effectiveness the teachers of The City School needs to correct the wrong answers of the students in a non- threatening way.

6. Teachers of Beaconhouse School needs to ask questions to get the right answers and also provide prompts to the students.

7. The previous three years results of these two schools indicated that there was no significant difference in teaching effectiveness. The over all performance of the teachers was found almost equal.

Recommendations

Keeping in view the findings and conclusions of the study the following recommendations are made.

(1) The present study on teaching effectiveness conducted on Beaconhouse School and The City School was satisfactory. Both the schools must improve the performance of their teachers.

(2) Both the schools understudy were uncooperative in providing relevant data. Such schools belonging to private sector must be cooperative and helpful to the researchers.

(3) Similar research on effective teaching must be done in private as well as public sector.

(4) The present study was conducted at primary level. Similar research must be conductive at higher levels.

(5) Mjority of the teachers were not familiar with this latest approach of effective teaching which includes helping and key behaviours. Teacher training programmes should be based on latest methods of teaching.

(6) The head of the institutions must be familiar the latest teaching methods so that they can guide their teachers properly.

(7) The responses from the students must be taken directly at primary and higher level.

(8) Further studies on effective teaching must be encouraged in Pakistan.

LITERATURE CITED

Averch, H. A. et al, 1972. How Effective is Schooling? A Critical Review and Synthesis of Research Findings. The Rand Corportion California. Pp 52-60.

Arends, L. R. 1998. Learning to Teach (4th ed). The McGraw-Hill Companies. Pp 11-20.

Fenstermacher, D. G. and F. J. Soltis. 1986. Approaches to Teaching 1986. Teachers College Press Amsterdam Aavenue, New York. P. 17.

Hay M., 2000. Research into Teacher Effectiveness. A Model of Teacher Effectiveness. The Department for Education and Employment.

Thomas, K. C. 1997. Educational Psychology. Windows on Teaching. Brown and Benchmark Publishers. The United States of America by Times Mirror Higher Education Group. P. 375.

Sadker, M. P. and D. M. Sadker 1997. Teachers, Schools and Society (4th ed). The McGraw-Hill Companies. P. 41.

Maer F., 1966. A History of Educational Thought (2nd ed). Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co. A Bell and Howell Company Columbus, Ohio. P. 403.

Hafiz S., 2001. A Study of Students’ Performance and Teachers Qualifications in the Subject of Physics at Secondary Level in District Jehlum. University Institute of Education and Research. University of Arid Agriculture Rawalpindi.

Mohan J., 1992. Study of Educational Psycholgy. Department of Psychology Punjab University Chandigrh India. Pp . 257-265.

Eggen, P and D. Kauchak 1997. Educational Psychology. Windows on Classroom (3rd ed). Merrill an Imprint of Prentice Hall New Jersey Columbus, Ohio. P. 481

Crowl, T. K, S. Kaminisy and D. M. Podell. 1997. Educational Psycholgy. Windows on Teaching. Brown Benchmark. Publishers, Madison. P. 365.

Mirza, M. S, A. S. Kazmi, M. Saleem and M. M. Hussain. 1986. Determine Competencies of Teachers at Elementary Level. Azeem Printing Corporation, Lahore. P. 9.

Ali Z., and M. N. Awan. 1993. Aik Misali Ustad Key Shaksiat Key Baray Main Asaitza Ki Raey (Unpublished Master Thesis). Institute of Education and Research, University of the Punjab, Lahore. Pakistan. P. 57.

Borich, D.G.1996. Effective Teaching Methods (3rd ed). Merrill and imprint of prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio. PP. 2-40.

Anderson, L.W. Paris 1991. Increasing Teacher Effectiveness. International Institute For Educational Planning UNESCO, Paris. pp.16-17.

Mohit C., 1998. Teacher Education Modern Trends. Madan Sachdeva and Kanishka Publishers distributors New Dehli. P.15.

Kochhar, S.K. 1992. Methods and Techniques of Teaching. Sterling Publishers Pvt. New Dehli. PP.41-42.

Richard, I. A, N. E. Winitzky and M. D. T annenbaum. 2001. Exploring teaching. An Introduction to Education (2nd ed). The McGraw-Hill Companies.

Elliott, Kratochwill, L. Cook and Travers. 2000. Educational Psychology Effective Teaching, Effective Learning. The McGraw-Hill Companies.

Garrette, H. E. 1997. and R. S. WoodWorth. Statistics in Psychology and Education. (6th ed ). Combine Printers (Pvt) Ltd. Lahore.

Practice teaching occupies a key position in the programme of teacher education. It is a culminating experience in teacher preparation. It provides opportunity to beginning teachers to become socialized into the profession (Furlong et.al, 1988). Performance during practice teaching provides some basis for predicting the future success of the teacher. Outgoing popularity and centrality of practice teaching is an important contributing factor towards the quality of teacher education programme. During practice teaching working with students in schools provides a high degree of emotional involvement of a mostly positive nature. Student teachers feel themselves grow through experience and they begin to link to a culture of teaching. During practice teaching, they feel engaged, challenged and even empowered (Trowbridge and Bybee, 1994; sharafuddin, and Allison, 1969).

Definitions of Practice Teaching

A number of terms such as the practice teaching, student teaching, teaching practice, field studies, infield experience, school based experience or internship are used to refer to this activity (Taneja, 2000). The term practice teaching embraces all the learning experiences of student teachers in schools (Ashraf, 1999). The term practice teaching has three major connotations: the practicing of teaching skills and acquisition of the role of a teacher; the whole range of experiences that students go through in schools; and the practical aspects of the course as distinct from theoretical studies (Stones and morris, 1977).

Practice teaching is the name of the preparation of student teachers for teaching by practical training. It is the practical use of teaching methods, teaching strategies, teaching principles, teaching techniques and practical training and practice / exercise of different activities of daily school life.

Objectives of Practice Teaching

According to Akbar (2002) Following are the objectives of practice teaching:

To provide the prospective teachers with an opportunity of establishing an appropriate teacher pupil relationship.
To provide an opportunity for evaluating the student potential as a teacher and suitability for the teaching profession.
To develop personal relationship with others: administrators, teachers, parents and students.
To provide the future teacher with practical experience in school to overcome the problems of discipline and enable him / her to develop method of control.
To provide with an opportunity to put theories into practice and to develop a deeper understanding of educational principles and their implication for learning.
To enable the student teachers effectively to plan and prepare lessons.
To develop skill in the use of fundamental procedures, techniques and methods of teaching.
To develop desirable professional interests, attitudes and ideas relative to teaching profession.
To enable student teachers to acquire desirable characteristics / traits of a teacher and to display appropriate behaviour.
To provide student teachers with an opportunity to have teaching evaluated and to gain from the benefits of constructive criticism.
To provide an opportunity for self evaluation and to discover own strengths and weaknesses.
To develop skills in future teachers related to teaching like fluent speaking, meaningful reading, using blackboard and other teaching material.
To provide an opportunity to liaise with school environment, its functioning and with community and its resources.
To provide for the exchange of ideas and methods between practicing school and teacher training institution, by teacher training institutions’ staff and students, perceiving new ideas material and equipment in use in practicing schools and introducing new ideas, material and equipments into the school.

Stages in Practice teaching

Following are the stages in practice teaching

 Primary Stage

It is necessary to make a trip of student teachers to that particular school, where they are going for practice teaching. The main aim of this tour is to see the concerned head teacher, class teachers and school staff in order to acquire information about school and its environment. Student teachers must observe the teaching methods of school, methods of concerned class teacher, copies or notebooks of the students and their usual routine. On return from the tour student teachers must have the details about scheme of studies, age of the students, strength of the class, abilities and specific problems of the students, timing of the school, textbooks and teaching aids.

Preparation of Lesson

For the preparation of lesson student teachers must know the subject, the relevant books and audio visual aids. Which he / she is going to teach. Because already prepared lessons give confidence to the teacher. Student teachers and supervisor can reform the teaching learning process after its evaluation.

Qualities of a Good Lesson

A good lesson has the following qualities:

i)                    Lesson planning should be in complete detail.

ii)                   Lesson should be interesting.

iii)                 Effective and timely use of teaching methods and teaching aids.

iv)                 Student should be ready for learning.

v)                  Students should be involved practically in teaching learning process.

vi)                 Lesson should be taught in professional and friendly environment.

vii)               All students should be given same attention by keeping in view their individual differences.

Teaching in Classroom

            The stage of teaching in the classroom is known as  practice teaching. Student teachers while teaching   in the classroom passes through different steps of his / her teaching (Introduction, presentation, recapitulation) and concerned teacher  / supervisor assesses / observes his / her lesson.

Evaluation of Teaching Practice

In order to evaluate the teaching practice supervisor observe the student teacher while teaching in the classroom. Supervisor evaluates / observes the punctuality, lesson planning, teaching methods, use of audio visual aids, adequacy of audio visual aids, pitch of voice, dress, start and end of lesson, interest of the students, discipline of class, use of black / white board, students’ notebooks and objectives of the lesson.

Participation in Other routine Works of School

Teaching in the classroom is not only the objective of teaching practice, but also to provide training in all activities / work which student teachers are going to perform in future during their job. For this purpose they have to spend whole day in school as teacher. They have to participate in all the activities of school e.g preparation of timetable, preparation and maintenance of different registers, evaluation of class work and home work, arrangement of tutorial groups, sports / games, morning assembly, co-curricular activities, duty during recess, duty as day master, duty before and after school timing, decoration of classroom, preparation and maintenance of attendance board, news board, information board, look after and arrangements of A V aids room, home economics room, science laboratories and library.

            How to deal with students’ parents, officers of the school, school employees and guests are also the part of teaching practice. Duties as invigilators, preparation of question papers for examinations, evaluation of answer scripts and compilation of results is also part of teaching practice.

Role of Supervisor in Teaching Practice

Supervisor has an important role in practice teaching as:

i)                    A resource person

ii)                   An adviser

iii)                 A general moral booster

iv)                 An interpreter of feedback

v)                  An assessor

            Supervisor’s duty is not only to evaluate the lessons of teaching practice, but by using his / her all the abilities to make this experience (All the stages of teaching practice) result oriented. He / she should has all the planning before hand. He / she should have meeting and conversion with teacher educators, experienced teachers of the institution, educationists, concerned school head teachers and other teachers.

Introductory lectures should be arranged before the departure of student teachers to the practicing schools in order to aware the student teachers about the preparation of lesson plans and other assigned activities. During teaching practice it is the duty of supervisors to supervise their lessons, other assigned activities, guidance and counseling as well as provide the student teachers with feed back and to enable them so that they can criticize and reform themselves. During the teaching practice student teachers should not be criticized in front of the practicing school staff and students. If there is a need then all the student teachers should be gathered and should be scolded and warned without nominating and asking the name. Supervisors’ role is to prepare teachers for future, therefore he / she should act as a facilitator.

Teaching Practice in Pakistan

            Different teacher training programmes are being offered in Pakistan. In all the programmes teaching practice is compulsory component except M.Ed (Master of Education). In true spirit we can produce good teachers through this activity, but the procedure adopted in Pakistan is just to pass / kill the time. Teaching practice duration is very short, it is about 4 to 8 weeks or teaching of 60 to 75 lessons. During teaching practice student teachers are bound to the classrooms for teaching. They are not trained for the other activities performed in schools. Therefore, effective learning could not take place. Student teachers are bound to use easy principles and methods of teaching. They are just being taught how to start the lesson, how to control the class, how to keep an eye over the students while writing on the black / white board.

            Teaching practice is doing nothing to teaching other than adhoc basis. The schools where teaching practice is conducted are doing nothing but only bearing it and not taking active part in the preparation of teachers of future. The administration and teachers of practicing schools are not aware with the information and evaluation techniques, which are used during teaching practice. They are not fully aware about the importance of teaching practice for student teachers and future generations.

            It is a fact that student teachers are not perfect teachers, practicing schoolteachers can’t give them full authorities but they can trust on them. Practically two ways are being seen here in Pakistan. Firstly these uninvited guests are consider inferiors teachers and criticized without any justification. Secondly some teachers transfer their all burden to them.

            In some teacher training institutions selection of lessons is kept up to the choice of student teachers and they select such lessons which are very easy and in which minimum audio visual aids are used.

Suggestions to Improve Teaching Practice in Pakistan

Here are some suggestions to improve the teaching practice in Pakistan.

a)      In teacher training institutions teaching methods were not only teach but also practically demonstrated by the teacher educators.

b)      The duration of teaching practice should be increased up to 12 weeks at least, so that practical training should be given for a quarter of the year.

c)      Teaching practice should not be consisted of classroom teaching only. Other aspects like attendance of students, collection of fee, calculation of fee, preparation of registers, conduct of morning assembly, conduct of co-curricular activities, preparation of question papers, marking of answer scripts, compilation of results, solution of students’ problems and meetings with students’ parents should be included.

d)      Microteaching should be adopted in teacher training institutions and model lessons should be given before student teachers by experts as well as by video films.

e)      Student teachers are not given marks only for model lessons and all the aspects of teaching practice should be included in evaluation.

f)        In order to make the evaluation of teaching practice more effective, appropriateness of lesson, teaching methods, teaching aids, practical organization of lesson, interest of students and teachers and students’ answers should be included in evaluation.

g)      It should be encouraged that student teachers make audio visual aids by them selves and student teachers should be given  / provided guidance after every lesson.

h)      In order to make teaching practice more effective, it is also proposed that student teachers should watch the lessons of experienced teachers for one week and write evaluation report about them and supervisors should provide guidelines to student teachers in the light of this evaluation report.

i)        It should be ensured that student teachers keep the sequence of lessons in such a way, so that they can teach all types of lessons and use different teaching methods.

j)        Prior to teaching practice student teachers should practice in their fellows in order to build more confidence in them.

k)      During teaching practice student teachers should be given projects, which cover all the aspects of teaching practice i.e. (preparation of teaching kit, planning for decoration of classrooms, betterment of environment and provision of facilities).

l)        During practice teaching prospective teachers should be made habitual of preparing daily lesson plan.

m)    Practice teaching should be more realistic and suited to the actual class room situations.

Conclusion

Teaching practice is an activity, which can play an important role in the preparation of teachers. Its effectiveness is necessary for the nation. It is a milestone for professional adolescence.  It is a combination of personality, professional skills, knowledge and training, which is fuel for an endless journey. Now it is the duty / responsibility of teacher educators and teachers of practicing schools to make this fuel / expenditure endless.

Bibliography

Akbar, R.A. (2002).A study of Practice Teaching of Prospective Secondary School

           Teachers and Development of a Practice Teaching Model, Arid Agricultural

           University, Rawalpindi (Unpublished PhD Thesis).

Ali Murtaza,(2005). Comparative Study of Practice Teaching in Formal and Non formal

           Systems and Development of a Model, Arid Agricultural  University, Rawalpindi  

           (Unpublished PhD Thesis).

Brown, P.D. & Brown N.R.(1990). Effective Teaching Practice. Stanley Thornes,

      England.

Cohen, a. & Carver, N. (1970). A Students’ guide to Teaching Practice. University of

       London Press, London.

Cohen, L.& Manion, L.(1983). A Guide to teaching Practice. Methuen, London.

Furlong, V.J.;P.U. Hirst and K. Pocklington.(1988). Initial Teacher Training and The

        Role of the chool. Open University Press, Philadelphia.

Govt. of Pakistan. (1997). Pakistan Vision 2010. report; seminar on education. Planning

        and Development Division, Islamabad.

Malik, S.R.(1992). The System of education in Pakistan. National Book Foundation,

         Lahore.

Muhammad Ashraf (1990). Dictionary of Primary Education. A.P.H. Publishing

       Corporation, New Delhi.

Shah, R.A.(1995). Education and Teacher education in Pakistan. Pakistan study Centre,

         University of Sindh, Jamshoro.

Taneja, R.P.(2000). Encyclopedia of Comparative Education, Vol.4. Anmol Publications

          Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

Walkin, L.C.(    ). Instructional Techniques Practice. Stanley Thornes, Bargenham.

Related Teachings Articles

Article by hi joiney

Industry background With Internet access on campus and the growing network conditions improve, modernize China’s education industry is also developing by leaps and bounds, Distance Education Its flexibility, safety, convenience and other advantages, suffered broken through the traditional school teaching time and space, and thus has been widely applied to modern education Technology System, the field of distance education is the teaching of new methods of teaching management, leading the trend of the times. It also demonstrated a school / training institutions using technology to achieve fast, efficient, reduce operating costs, accelerate the development of education, and many other advantages. Distance education since its birth, by the State and society the strong support of the relevant meeting of the State Council, distance education has also been cultivated as a strong new government spending and economic growth of hot spots. Our Solutions Not only provides teaching interaction, live class, after school three functions on demand, to achieve the communication between the teacher and the teacher, the students point to point communication between the audio and video communications. And the distribution of teachers in different parts of the meeting at any time, remote office and teaching research. Interactive Live Video Teaching System specific application requirements The number of users to support large-capacity: The number of educational institutions, personnel, people also need to provide multiple locations to receive distance learning, teaching content can also participate in the discussion. In addition to the normal audio and video capabilities, and data collaboration features, but also need to be able to meet the needs of future applications, as follows: 1, account management, systems management at different levels, different users Visit Content of different permissions.2, teaching broadcast mode, without the need to log on to the conference room directly through networking PC Watch live teaching situation, and can save the recording. 3, interactive mode of teaching, students like many places in the same classroom for distance learning to communicate and interact. 4, teaching and research seminars, teaching and research staff members and between teaching and research, teaching and research staff and teachers, between teachers and teachers can discuss teaching and research activities initiated at any time. 5, medium-demand video in real time to facilitate the students review lectures, greatly improved learning.Other applications include: the faculty leadership of the conference; temporary point to point communication; online learning guidance; teacher students through the Internet in real time, non real-time learning and training, learning resources can be achieved on demand, Q, counseling the same time, on this basis to build a complete communication management, personnel management, resource management system. For the different regions of the teachers and students time to create an exchange, share, discuss teaching atmosphere. Interactive features live video teaching systemTo meet the educational needs of the industry, pilot interactive live video teaching system has three main features three functions, namely teaching interactive, live classroom, courseware on-demand feature that enables the remote interactive teaching, improve teaching quality. Pilot interactive live video teaching system is not only the exchange of audio and video can also be used for real-time text communication, file transfer, Whiteboard, Document sharing, collaborative browsing, file downloading and other major functions. As the industry’s best interactive live video teaching system, pilot interactive live video and audio teaching system, its excellent video quality, powerful sound communication and collaboration capabilities, system performance and stability to provide the user with a comprehensive, multi-level efficient network multimedia communications platform. Clear and smooth, high-quality audio and video effects, a comprehensive and efficient data-rich collaborative features, simple user-friendly interface, convenient and comprehensive remote management and maintenance tools and advanced platform architecture, making pilot interactive live video video teaching system functions, performance and prospects of technology development, the all have industry-leading technology and product advantages. Pilot interactive live video data to provide a strong education system collaboration features, allowing users to in-depth information exchange and collaborative work becomes easier.

About the Author

I am a professional writer from Chinese Manufacturers, which contains a great deal of information about $ keyword_li, welcome to visit!

Find More Teachings Articles

DR’s Secret is the best selling product of Best World International for the last 5 years. DR’s Secret Range is developed by founder Dr. Doreen Tan and manufactured in the United States. DR’s Secret means Dermatology Revolution, it uses revolutionary techniques in its unique blend of natural ingredients. All products contain no preservatives.

DR’s Secret is a revolutionary skin care range that brings defining results to your complexion and overall countenance. It allows your skin to experience the process of re-construction and re-conditioning in a Simple, Safe & Speedy way. Infused with skin-loving vitamins and minerals to give your skin a whitening and rejuvenating boost, DR’s Secret addresses common skin problems such as wrinkles, fine lines, acne blemishes and pigmentation, delivering a young and healthier look in a matter of weeks!

DR’s Secret uses vitamins and minerals to bring out the natural beauty in you.

By using a combination of Vitamin A, C and E, it brings out the radiance of the skin.

Our program is designed to suit all skin types, especially for sensitive skin. Unlike other skincare products in the market where the effectiveness is lost after 2-3 years, the longer you use DR’s Secret, the better your skin becomes.

Infused with skin-loving vitamins and minerals to give your skin a whitening, rejuvenating boost, DR’s Secret addresses common skin problems such as freckles, wrinkles, fine lines, acne blemishes and pigmentation, delivering a younger and healthier look in a matter of weeks and takes years aways from your complexion!

The anti-aging formula works on your skin from within. This is very different from other skin care product which works only on the skin surface. Being a pharmaceutical grade product, DR’s Secret highly effective ingredients penetrate the dermis layer to remove dead cells and bring out new skin cells below to rejuvenate your skin. During the skin “re-construction” period, light peeling and redness of the skin is normal as this process accelerates the growth of healthy cells.

You will be amazed when skin problems such as acne, pigmentation, scarring, wrinkles and premature aging fade away to reveal fresh, new and healthy skin! After that, DR’s Secret maintains and nurtures your renewed skin, giving it the radiance your complexion deserves!

You will love the feeling of seeing improvement of your skin day by day. You will love yourself more. You will love to look at yourself inside the mirror.

Visit http://drsecrestore.com now for more information!

This is the first 20 minutes of the global film phenomenon “The Secret”. It is authorized by The Secret LLC for personal use only. Please enjoy this gift!

Article by Evans Putman

Experience the luxury of tour-class caddies. Play the private golf courses that celebrities and touring pros play. Get tee times on a course that once required a 0,000 gambling credit line at local casinos.What’s the secret? It’s coming. But first, here’s a quick look at four golf courses that even us high handicappers and regular Joe’s can play. Cascata Golf ClubThe course is so exclusive they don’t even provide an address. This Rees Jones designed course once required a 0,000 credit line at local casino properties just for the privilege of a tee time. Now it will only cost you 0 to 0.Shadow Creek Golf CourseCalled one of the finest courses in the world, Shadow Creek Golf Course is another exclusive must-play course. Golfers receive a private limousine to and from the course and a private caddie for your round.Rio Secco Golf CourseRio Secco is listed as a “Top 10 Golf Resort in the World” by USA Today. This 18-hole championship course sits among the rolling foothills of the Black Mountain Range in Las Vegas. Rio Secco is also home of the world-famous Butch Harmon School of Golf.Wynn Las Vegas Golf CourseThis Tom Fazio design just opened in late April of 2005. Just like everything else Steve Wynn does, golfers should expect a first-class experience from the clubhouse to the 18th green. Speaking of the 18th hole, when you play this course you’ll get a nice view of the newly-created 37-foot-tall waterfall. This course is restricted to Wynn Las Vegas resort guests. Okay, did you catch that last sentence? There is your not-so-secret secret for playing these exclusive Las Vegas golf courses. Booking a Las Vegas hotel and golf package can provide you with a VIP pass to these amazing golf courses and the amenities that come with them.Now you know the secret. Your next step is to book one of these Las Vegas hotel and golf packages. Then you can hit the links in style and enjoy a golfing experience like you have never experienced before.You can find out which hotels are affiliated with each golf course by visiting our Las Vegas golf package page at http://www.perfectgolfvacations.com/las-vegas-golf-package.html. After you treat yourself to one of these exclusive Las Vegas golf courses, drop us a line. We’d love to hear all about it. Stay informed on exclusive golf courses and all golf vacation and destination news at http://www.perfectgolfvacations.blogspot.comCopyright 2005 Evans Putman – All Rights Reserved. Reprints allowed when article is not modified or changed in any way.

About the Author

Evans Putman owns and operates http://www.PerfectGolfVacations.com your source for the best golf destination information. We deliver local market information and word-of-mouth recommendations from golf destinations like Myrtle Beach, Las Vegas, Ireland, Hilton Head, and more.

Article by Terri Seymour

The “Not So Secret” Secrets of Success© Terri SeymourHave you ever heard of the “secrets of success”? Manytimes people are trying to sell you these “secrets” for a very high price! Well, in my five years of Internetmarketing experience, I haven’t learned any “secrets”.These so-called “secrets” are mostly common sense and hard work. We all know these “secrets”. We justhave to apply them and use them consistently.”Secret” #1 – PeopleDealing with people can be hard, but we all know we must be courteous and professional. You need to accept the fact that you cannot please everybody. Whenyou come across one of these people you cannot pleaseno matter what you do, just deal with them firmly, but courteously and professionally. Not a “secret”!MOE Motto -Treat people as you would like to be treated!”Secret” #2 – PassionWe all know that we need to like we do in order to be really successful at it. If you are interested in petsdo not start a business dealing with cars!;-)Building an online business will take a lot of passionto get through the frustration, obstacles, and otherdifficulties. There will be many times when we willneed our passion to get us through! Not a “secret”!”Secret” #3 – Customer ServiceAnother “secret” is to treat the customer with respectand courtesy. It will not be easy to deal with difficult customers this way, but it can be done. I have worndown some of the nastiest customers by a continuingcampaign of courtesy, politeness and professionalism!Each time I dealt with this one lady, she was less andless rude and upset and more relaxed and easy to dealwith. Eventually, she was thanking me and praising mefor being so helpful and nice. Don’t be condescendingand don’t let yourself get upset. Remain calm, yet be firm and respectful. Not a “secret”!”Secret #4 – PromotionTo build a business, people must know that you and your business exist. Advertising, promotion and networking are how this is done. Set up a promotionschedule and stick with it. Be consistent. This may get tedious at times, but it must be done! Write and submit articles, publish an ezine, get listedall over the web, do link exchanges, swap ezine ads, compile a fr~e ebook for viral marketing, subscribeto announcement lists, visit message boards, get involved in discussion groups……..there are hundredsof ways of promoting yourself and your online business!Not a “secret”!”Secret” #5 – Hard WorkDespite what many people have said, it is not easy to “get rich overnight” and “making thousands a week,while doing nothing” just doesn’t happen. To be successful you will need to work and work hard. This is where passion for your work comes in!Not a “secret”!”Secret” #6 – CommitmentExpanding on the hard work “secret”, you will need to make a commitment to success. You must be willingto make sacrifices and work long hours. This will nothappen overnight….it could take years. Are you prepared for years of frustration, hard work, ups and downs, dealing with people (good and bad), rejections,and everything else that comes along with building abusiness? Not a “secret”!”Secret” #7 – PrideTake pride in your work. Your work and your businesswill be a reflection of you. Build your reputation for a solid foundation of success. Be true to yourself andyour business. Not a “secret”!”Secret” #8 – GoalsBe aware of what you want and how you want to get it.Do not go blindly into business without some planning of your goals and accomplishments. Use short term smaller goals to eventually reach your long term ultimate goal of success. Not a “secret”!So we know in order to start and build a business, we must plan our goals, be prepared for the work and commitment of building that business, and that we mustbuild a reputation of trust and professionalism.I know we all knew that. It just helps to be reminded once in awhile!;-)

About the Author

Terri Seymour (also known as “The eBook Lady”) has over ten years online experience and has helped many people start their own business. Visit her site at http://www.seymourproducts.com for resources, resell ebooks & software, free tutorials, affiliate programs, free ezine and free business ebook with Master Resell Rights. http://www.seymourproducts.com/free.shtml

More Secret Articles

Article by Cory Jean

The Law of Attraction is a very simple theory for anyone to understand and implement in their life. When done correctly it is so effective that it might seem ridiculous that someone might not find the success that they search for in using this ancient universal law. The problem typically comes from both misunderstanding exactly what is required to properly leverage the law of attraction and over-complicating what needs to be done to find success.

The law of attraction does not state that all you have to do to find success or to manifest your dreams is to visualize what you desire and that it will come to you. Visualization and faith in the ability of the universe to deliver what you desire is only part of the equation that makes the law of attraction work. Action is a necessary part of making your dreams your reality. If you were to simply sit in a room and visualize that which you desire without taking any sort of action the chances of your visualization becoming a reality are slim to none. This is where so many people become confused.

Taking action is a necessary part of properly leveraging the power of the law of attraction. Moving your life in the direction that you are led and allowing change to take place in your life that will eventually lead to the manifestation of your dreams is probably the most important part of bringing about success in your life. Be open to opportunities as they present themselves and watch how it all unfolds for you. Wait in faithful expectation of the opportunities and changes that are going to happen in your life almost if you already knew what was about to happen. Of course, you won’t know exactly what is going to happen but with each change or opportunity comes another revelation to exactly how things are going to unfold for you.

Yes, visualization and focusing on your goals or dreams is an important part of using the law of attraction. For most, this is the most fun part and thus the part that most people like to do. Sitting and dreaming of what you want your life to be like can be exciting as you allow your mind to experience what your life will be like. But the journey can be an exhilarating part of using the law of attraction also. The work that will need to be done doesn’t have to be the type of work that you dread or even what one might typically consider work. Your life can move in a whole new direction whereby your work is what you might have once considered a hobby or pastime.

In addition, your actions should be very positive actions and in all dealings with the law of attraction the outcome is always a win-win proposition. Any exchange that leads to the fulfilling of your dreams involving the law of attraction will always leave both parties feeling that they have received great value. This is typically a very difficult aspect of the law of attraction that leaves many people stuck wondering why things aren’t working out for them. But when using the law of attraction as a motivational tool in one’s life success comes very easily if you are abiding by the rules of this ancient law.

Just keep in mind that the law of attraction does work. It is going to require that you actually do something but if you remain open to the possibilities you will find success coming your way in a manner that you never thought possible.

To learn more about the Law of Attraction and manifestation we recommend Revolutioniz. Find out step by step and in detail how to leverage this powerful natural law to make your dreams a reality starting today!

Good Luck!

About the Author

Cory Jean is a freelance artist and a budding author living along the NC coast.

More Ancient Laws Articles

No man is above the law and no man is below it; nor do we ask any man’s permission when we ask him to obey it. Obedience to the law is demanded as a right; not asked as a favor.

Theodore Roosevelt

Well, law is one of the oldest and greatest creations of people which can be admired or hated, but it can be never violated. The first written mentioning of laws can be found in Ancient Egypt in the 3000 BC. Of course, modern law is much multifaceted than those first ancient laws. However, ancient people considered many legal issues concerning various crimes: murders, robbery, etc. Thus, such professions as lawyers, prosecutors may be placed in the range of the oldest ones. In spite of the long history, law as an academic discipline started its existence quite recently, a few centuries ago.

In terms of this discipline you may study such branches as constitutional law, criminal law, administrative law, international law, property law, labor law, family law, immigration law, etc. Each branch of this academic discipline deals with various issues. Law students study numerous laws, consider different cases and learn to interpret laws. What features of character and skills you may need if you decide to study this academic discipline?

You should develop your analytical skills. Your future career presupposes deep analysis and drawing the correct conclusions. 
You should train your memory. You will have to learn and remember numerous laws to be able to solve cases.
You must be very attentive. You cannot afford missing any detail, anything at all, even if it may seem a trifle thing. Such “trifles” may define further lives of many people.
If you want to study international law, you may need to learn several (at least one) foreign language.
The last thing, but the most important, is to remember that you must stay calm, objective and impartial.

Find More Ancient Laws Articles

                                               LAW      CODES 

Law codes can be defined as a collection of all laws. It follows from the definition that laws do not evolve all by themselves unless there are law-makers and law-enforcers. For such a development, the society following the codes need not be literate. However all the extant ancient law codes are from peoples who knew how to write. The first such existing code goes back to circa 2400 BCE and consists of tablets from the antique city of Ebla (modern Tell Mardikh) in Syria. Following this earliest example is another from ca 2050 BCE, and has been found among texts in the Museum of the Ancient Orient in Istanbul. It is from Ur Nammu, King of Sumer and Akkad belonging to the Third Dynasty of Ur. He proclaimed there that the god Nanna selected him to rule, and in addition to his royal duties he punished corrupt courtiers and introduced standard weights and measures. Next such code, written in Akkadian in two tablets dated circa 1920 BCE is from the ancient kingdom of Eshnunna and is in the Iraq Museum. It contains sixty regulations concerning properties laid down by the god Tispak, which the local king was asked to declare in writing. There are similar tablets, now in the University of Pennsylvania, written in Sumerian script giving directives on a  lot of matters said to be from the King Lipit-Ishtar in the closing years of the twentieth century BCE.  Then, there are the Mid-Assyrian group of  clay tablets citing the laws of ancient Ashur (modern Qalat Shergat) in the fifteenth century BCE, excavated by German archaeologists in the years preceding the first world war. The most comprehensive and detailed among all such codes is the code of Hammurabi written in Akkadian around 1728 – 1686 BCE, and found at Susa, east of Babylon in 1901. It is carved on a six feet high column of diorite and is now in the Louvre Museum, Paris.

Ancient Egypt — 3,000 BCE

About 5,000 years ago, there was an unwritten civil code in  Egypt  divided apparently in 12 sections. Based on the principle of  Ma’at, it emphasised tradition, rhetorical speech, social equality and impartiality in the judicial system. Regarded as the judgment of the dead, it was believed that the heart of the deceased would be weighed by the god Horus with ostrich feathers, head dress of the goddess Ma’at symbolizing justice. A heavy heart indicated that it was so due to evil deeds, and the body and the soul of the deceased would then be eaten by a special beast. If, however, the heart balanced itself against the feathers, then it was good, honest, and just. As a reward, the soul was allowed to live forever. It would be therefore apparent that the religious and secular aspects of the Egyptian society of the times were not separable. Perhaps, for this reason the judges used to wear a small figure of the goddess as a pendant round their necks, which also indicated that Ma’at stood for natural balance and order along with ethics and morality. Tradition was considered important because the Egyptians lived  undisturbed in the valley of the Nile without any threats from invaders. Geographical features kept them away allowing the Egyptians to hold recurring festivals and follow traditional rituals for centuries and millennia. Consequently, a sort of record of the judgments were maintained and the system of justice evolved over a long period of time. Oratorical skill or the ability to make or break a case was given importance in the Middle Kingdom(ca 2040 – 1674 BCE) and thereafter, while the centuries preceding established impartiality as essential (ca 2200 – 2040 BCE) in the justice system.  The belief that before  god all his creations  were equal gave rise to the concept of equality also in the Middle Kingdom.

Law  Codes  of   Lipit – Ishtar  –  20th  Century   BCE

He belonged to the first dynasty of Isin and was its fifth king from ca 1934 – 1924  BCE.  He is known for the poems written in his honour in Sumerian language as also a law code, the authenticity of which is doubtful. These were used by the scholars of the times for centuries after his death. Inscriptions and documents of  Lipit-Ishtar were found in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia, from which the following excerpts are obtained :

1 – If a man is caught stealing from someone else’s orchard, he has to pay a fine of ten shekels of silver.

2 – And, if he cuts down a tree there, the penalty shall be half a mina of silver.

3 – If a married man with children begets more from his slave, then the slave and her children (on being granted freedom by her master) shall not lay any claim on his property.

4 – If a married couple is issueless, and the man fathers children from a harlot, then the man shall provide clothing, grain and oil to that woman, and the children she has borne him shall become his heirs. The woman shall not live in the same house with the wife.

5 – The owners of adjacent houses / plots are required to get into an agreement that if one is harmed due to faults / defects in his neighbour’s property, then the aggrieved is to be compensated by the offender.

6 – If a man hired an ox and injured its eye, he has to pay half the price of the ox.

7 – For injuries in the part of the nose where the nose ring is fitted (under the cicumstances given in 6), the fine is one-third the price of the ox.

8 – For a broken horn (under conditions as in 6), the penalty is one -fourth.

9 – Compensation same as 8 for injuries in the tail.

Eshnunna  Code  on  Properties — 1920  BCE  

The  Eshnunna Code gave directions on hiring, wages, punishments for theft, compensations for loss of limbs and such other aspects as would be seen in the excerpts following :

10 – A donkey can be hired for a day for 1 seah of barley and its driver is to be given the same quantity in addition.

11 – One shekel of silver is the monthly wage of a hired man and for food he is to get one pan of barley daily.

12 – A man stealing crops from the field of a palce/temple official during daytime is to pay a fine of 10 shekels of silver. If  caught at night, he has to die.

13 – Punishment as above for household thefts.

42 – A man biting off the nose of another man shall pay one mina of silver; for the loss of an eye, the fine is the same amount; for an ear, 1/2 mina; while the fine for a slap on the face is 10 shekels of silver.

44 – During an altercation, if a man floors another and breaks his hand, the offender shall pay      

1/2 mina of silver as compensation.

48 – There will be a formal trial for all cases involving penalties ranging from two-thirds of a mina to one mina. The trial for a capital offence is submitted before the king …

53 – If an ox gores to death another ox, then both the owners are to divide among themselves the prices of the dead and the live ox.

54 – If an ox gores by habit, the authorities are to bring this to the notice of the owner as a warning. Despite this, if the owner does not dehorn the ox, and the ox gores another man to death, then the owner shall pay a penalty of two-thirds of a mina of silver.

57 – If a vicious dog bites a slave and the slave dies, then the owner of the dog shall pay a penalty of 15 shekels of silver.

58 – If a wall is about to collapse, then the authorities are to warn the owner and he is liable to take measures to prevent it. Despite this, if the wall falls and kills a free man, then it is a capital offence, under the jurisdiction of the king.

Codex  of   Hammurabi –  18th  Century  BCE

Modern archaeologists view the Law Codes or Codex of Hammurabi as a very important discovery of this nature so far. The Codex offers a fascinating glimpse of the mores and morals; the life and times; and the beliefs and values in ancient Babylonia. Babylonia in the past is the vast tract of land to the south of Mesopotamia in modern Iraq containing the territories of Akkad and Sumer.  The semitic tribe of Amorites coming from the west of the Euphrates river gained control over most of the area, but it was not entirely unified. The most powerful city state there was Isin of the Sumerians while the Amorites in course of time formed another in Babylon. The “Amorite” colonists were there mainly for the purpose of trade, and the Babylonians were in contact with other city states. Officials, peoples and troops went from Babylon to Canaan, Syria and other places. As the semitic tribes settled down in the area, their tribal customs were adopted as laws. There were constant struggles for supremacy between the cities with the victorious demanding tributes and troops from the subjugated ones. The customs and cults along with their city rights and usages were, however, left untouched. For instance, after the acquisition of Assur-bani-pal and Shamash-shum-ukin, the Babylonians urged that the city  allow free entry to twenty foreigners at one time; that foreign women married to Babylonians are not to be treated as slaves; and that not even a dog is to be killed without trial !   A widely irrigated and strategically located area for trade, Babylon was the meeting point of diverse groups of people. Its hanging gardens were considered as one of the seven wonders of ancient world by the Greek engineer and mathematician Philon along with the Greek poet and writer Antipater of Sidon circa 200 BCE.

Hammurabi (ca. 1810 BC – 1750 BCE) vanquished the dynasty of  Isin thus bringing to an end the centuries old domination of the  Sumerians over Mesopotamia, and held together the diverse peoples residing there by formulating the laws known as the Codex named after him.  His empire disintegrated after his death, but the laws he laid down survived even after Persian, Greek and Parthian invasions, disruptions with little effect on private life in Babylonia, and continued so as to leave its imprint on the subsequent  Syro – Roman  and the much later Islamic laws in Mesopotamia. It is believed by some experts that Moses ca 300 years after Hammurabi lifted quite a lot from the Codex  to frame his laws known as the Mosaic Law or the Laws of Moses. As evidence they point out, in addition to other similarities,  the famous (or infamous, depending on the point of view) “eye for an eye” principle of retribution. Other experts, notably Biblical archaeologists, say that the similarities are  more on the surface than in depth. In support of their contention, they point out that in Mosaic law the principle of retributive justice is applied universally without any distinction relating to the position of the offender. In the Codex, however, the law applies only between parties of the same status – such as, nobility, priestly, upper class, middle class, lower class and so on.

Though not exactly a line by line copy,  there are many correspondences between the Codex and the Torah of the Mosaic Bible or the first five Books of Moses.  The Codex provides a list of crimes and the various punishments for committing them would attract along with the procedures for settling common disputes. Guidelines for citizens’ behaviour and conduct are there, but there is no provision for excuses and explanations. However, it is implied that evidences for defence are admissible. Hammurabi is stated to have displayed the Codex in the market  so that nobody could say that he was not aware of the law. Scholars dispute this because very few people could read at that time. Literacy in that era was limited to the scribes and few others.  Punishments given in the Codex may appear to be exceedingly cruel and harsh to modern readers,  but that does not alter the fact that with these laws Hammurabi attempted to unify widely disparate groups of peoples into a whole – a crucial necessity for a civilisation. It  can not also be denied that the laws are essentially humanitarian in their aim and direction, and recognized the identity assigned to a group or the modern corporate personality.  Parts of it were recovered from Assur-bani-pal’s library at Nineveh and later copies of it made in Babylon show that it was studied closely, divided into chapters beginning with the words Ninu ilu sirum and recopied extensively for more than a millennium and a half.  A cornerstone of  the legal system is the concept that some laws are so basic that even the most powerful monarch on the earth can not change them.  By inscribing his laws in stone,  Hammurabi  made the concept  everlasting.

State Laws

Hammurabi’s laws  are the  laws of a state, first and foremost.  Features of tribal customs like self – help, blood – feud , marriage by capture and so on are not there. However, the traditions of family solidarity, district responsibility, ordeal and primitive retributive measures illustrated in lex murabi and talionis (an eye for an eye; a tooth for a tooth)  are retained.  A benevolent autocrat,  the  monarch possesses the strength and willingness to defend and protect the weak from the depredations of the most  powerful of  oppressors and  keeps the doors to his court always open for this purpose.  Royal intervention ceases only after the private complainant is appeased or the causes of public resentment are  removed. Feudalities subservient to the monarch cover the land;  masters of the levy collect the taxes; a regular police force maintains peace and order;  and a postal network receive and distribute mails. The society regards the women as its free and dignified members. It is said that the Babylonians felt so secured that they did not think twice to ride in their carriages to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea for work and relaxation. No doubt, such conditions were created and fostered in the past,  in centuries – old  law  abiding habits of the peoples and to  their  generally  litigious approach to settle disputes. The tendency to write down important things, the practice of maintaining records and to store such materials in the vast archives in the temples of the cities also helped matters. Interestingly,  the Babylonians always took recourse to written contracts, perhaps as  a guard against being cheated  by the peoples from other places with whom they did business.  Such business deals and  interactions helped in assimilation of the customs of different cities.

Hammurabi was of the view that he had been chosen by the gods to administer justice to his people and said so in the upper portion of the diorite column on which the Codex was inscribed. This section of the column now in the Louvre shows the monarch standing in front of the throne of the sun god Shamash and receiving a tablet from him. There it is engraved,  “Anu and  Bel called by name me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared God, to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land”.  Incidentally, circa one and a half millennia later, Emperor  Ashoka of  India  installed stone edicts in various places where he called himself “Piyadassi or the favourite of the Gods”.  Ashoka, however, was propagating  Buddhism  through these edicts.                     

There are 282 numbers of laws in the Codex, of which the numbers 13 and 66 to 99 are missing in the Louvre stela. Perhaps, this happened when the Elamite king Shutruk – Nahhunte carried it as plunder to Susa in Elam (modern Khuzestan in Iran), where it was discovered in Decmber, 1901.  Written in Akkadian language, the stela containing the text is also stated to have been installed (perhaps, initially) in the temple of Marduk  during the closing years of the reign of Hammurabi. According to the Codex, anyone can enter into a contract with someone else provided they both agree to its terms. A notary public wrote the deed of agreement in a temple;  it was confirmed with an oath “by god and the king”, and publicly sealed before professional witnesses as also collaterally interested parties.  The manner in which the processes were carried out ensured that there was nothing irreligious or illegal in the contract.  If there was a dispute, the judges first examined the contract which they might or might not support. There was a provision for appeal against such judgment,  having regard to which some contracts initially stipulated that the parties would abide by “the decision of the king” in the event of  future disputes. For a large number of cases, the Codex stated what the decision would be, and in such instances the appeals to the king were returned to the judges to decide accordingly.  Though not exactly like a modern treatise,  the Codex is a careful and logical collection of chapters arranged in the order of their subject – matters.

People

The Codex divides the people under three categories :  amelu,  muskinu  and  ardu. The amelu is on the top of the heap. He belongs to a family, has inherited property and enjoys full civil rights. His birth, marriage and death is in records. The king, his courtiers, the professions and the craftsmen constituted this class with some status. They have the right to retributive justice for corporal injuries to them, and are liable to a heavier punishment for crimes and offences as also higher fees and fines.  There is no specific property requirement, nor is there any racial undertone.  The  muskinu is somewhat difficult to define, and in time to come in Aramic and Hebrew as also in some modern languages would mean a beggar. The Codex does not regard him necessarily as poor, nor is there any restraint on his rights as a free man.  Probably, he is a landless person;  residing  in a separate  section of the city,  and who has to accept monetary compensation for corporal injuries to him. He pays smaller fees and fines, and his offerings to the gods are equally modest.  He has apparently no connection with the court or temple and does not form the majority of the population.  Not much is written about him in contemporary records, making him even more difficult to define.

The ardu is a slave, a property of his master. He and his kind are many in numbers, and in all probability form the bulk of the population. His master feeds and clothes him, and takes away all the compensation paid for injuries caused to him. Normally, his master finds him a slave – girl to marry, and children born to the couple are also slaves, property of the master. Often, the master provides him a house with a busines or agricultural farm to run and takes an annual rent from him. He is allowed to have slaves of his own and employ them to get his work done. He is also allowed to marry a free woman, and the money she may bring is not for the master to acquire. The children born to the couple are free, but the master has a right to half of the slave’s property in the event of his death.  He could free himself by paying his price to the master or could be free if he is dedicated to a temple or adopted by a free man. Then he straightway becomes an amelu, bypassing the category of muskinu.  Slaves are obtained by purchases from abroad or they could be the captives from a war. They could even be free men earlier, downgraded due to criminal acts or unpaid debts.  Naturally, they looked for opportunities to run away, and if captured the captor is bound to return him to the owner. The reward for this action is two shekels about one – tenth of the price of the slave. To detain or hide a slave or to help him in getting out of the city brings the punishment of death to the perpetrator. Slaves have for identification names of their owners branded or tattooed on their arms, removable only by surgery.

Properties

Long before Hammurabi, it was the custom to regard god as the owner of all lands and citizens as his tenants, administered by the king, his vice regent. Total  private ownership of  land  is therefore acknowledged in the Codex, and  the tax for it is to be paid in money, produce or service. Apparently, priests, merchants and resident foreigners can hold lands,  and all deals in land are subject to the payment of certain fixed charges. The king has the option to waive these charges, which he does as a form of reward through charters.  These charters also indicate what are the obligations of the land holder to  the king. He has to provide men for the army as also free labour. Generally, for a defined area, the land holder  would be required to get the king  a bowman (archer) and a pikeman to cover both of them with shields, and supply them everything that they need  during the campaign. Sometimes (obviously, for a large area) a horseman is also required. A man enlisted thus has to serve six terms, after which the landholder has to find a replacement usually from among the slaves and serfs (not excluding the amelu or the muskinu). The state requisitioned free or forced labour less often. A number of orders from Hammurabi giving exemptions from such requirements to priests and persons tending flocks of sheeps have been found.               

Land holders containing water bodies or riparian owners are expressly required to keep in good repair canals, quays, bridges, etc., in addition to the normal levy of a proportion of  cash and agricultural produce. Each city is allowed to charge its own octroi and customs duties; and                                                                               ferry , road and water taxes.  The king has estates and the money he receives from subjects; high officials get residences and endowments from him. Rules governing certain feudal classes are given in the Codex. They get a house, garden, field , stock and a salary, for which they are required to be on the king’s beck and call at all times, a privilege they can decline only on pain of death. If required to go abroad, they could depute a capable son to go there. If there is no such son, he is replaced by a locum tenens (a temporary deputy) while one-third of his earnings are given to his wife and children for expenses. Excepting this provision, the fief  is otherwise inalienable and can not be devised, diminished, exchanged, pledged, sold or sublet. All other land is leased from the state, while ancestral estates remain with the family for all time.  Even then, if a land is sold the family retains the right of redemption in perpetuity.

The temple enjoys a unique position in the society,  receiving tithes, customary shares from sacrifices and other offerings of the devotees, large amounts of produces from its estate in addition to money and other gifts,  and employing many  people if it happens to be large.  It seems each city is initially a cluster round the temple, with the heads of all families there having  the right to minister the temple  and to a share in the receipts. In time, the families of the founders come to  possess the right to manage the shrine or its gates for so many days in a year, which becomes a kind of property that can, be rented, pledged or shared within the family, but not alienated. Even after meeting those demands, the temple has a lot of assets and becomes a large granary and a store – house besides being the city archive. The temple has its share of responsibilities. Poor farmers go there to borrow seed,  grain, and other requirements for farming, advances they are to return without interest. If a citizen becomes a prisoner of war, and is unable to secure his release by paying the enemy, the temple of his city has to intervene and do so. The king has no proprietary control over the temple; he only administers it. Like any other citizen he can borrow from the temple, and like them has to pay back.  Persons devoted entirely and solely to the service of god are called hierodules or vestals in the Codex. They are required to remain chaste and are forbidden to go to a public house or tavern. They live in large nunneries and like other devotees enjoy lots of benefits.

Disposal of properties can be done in a number of ways according to the Codex such as barter, deposit, dedication, gift, loan or pledge – all matters of contract.  A  sale  means handing over of the thing sold to the buyer, which in land deals is symbolized by a key, a staff or a sale deed given for the money paid and receipt. If sold on credit, the purchaser has to give a bond promising payment. Claims without supporting documents or witnesses are not admissible. The buyer has to check the sellers title before purchase. If he buys from a minor or a slave without power – of – attorney,  the transaction will be regarded as theft (the punishment for which is death). Likewise, a receiver of stolen goods has to produce the seller and supporting documents or witnesses to the transaction, failing which he is to be executed as a thief.  If he produces supporting documents or witnesses to the sale, he is spared and has to return the the things to the actual owner. He is of course entitled to press charges against the seller. If the seller is already dead, then he receives a five – fold compensation.  The purchaser of a property belonging to a fiefdom or to a ward in chancery has to return it to the owner without any compensation. A sale becomes invalid with immediate effect, if there is an undisclosed liability or a defect in the sale deed.

Generally, land holders cultivate their lands themselves. They can also engage a farmer to till the land or give it on rent . The farmer so employed is liable to properly carry out his task, raise an average crop and keep the field in good order. The Codex prescibes a statutory  return in the event of a crop failure. The losses due to crop failure in leased or rented land are to be borne by the tenant. If let on a profit sharing basis,  the loss is to be shared in the same proportion as the profit envisaged. The land holder has no right to interfere when the tenant is keeping the land in good order,  nor can he prevent the tenant from subletting it.  For waste land, the tenant is bound to reclaim it, and remains rent – free for the first three years, and thereafter a statuttory rent given in the Codex is charged. If he neglects to reclaim the land, not only he has to pay the statutory rent but also to return the land to the owner in good order (in a reclaimed condition).The same conditions are applicable to gardens and orchards,  but for date groves the free  tenure is for four years. Temple lands are mainly cultivated under the metayer system which is a form of share – cropping with the owner providing most of the required agricultural inputs like seed, food for the workmen, fodder for the cattle, etc. The caretaker or the tenant usually has land of his own, and if he steals any of the inputs given to him, the Codex states that his fingers be cut off. He is heavily fined if he appropriates the implements or starves the cattle, and is to be gored  and trampled to death by the cattle in the field if he fails to pay the fine. As irrigation is a prime requirement for raising crops, it is mandatory for the tenant to keep the system in good repair. If due to a damaged dyke or an open sluice the neighbour’s field is flooded and his crops are ruined, the caretaker has to pay for it or be sold with his family to raise the money. Stealing of water – bucket or other farming  implements is fined heavily. Houses are generally given on rent for a year or longer than that, and the rent is to be paid in advance every six months. The house is required to be kept in good condition by the tenant. Woodwork like doors and door frames  is removable, and the tenant is permitted to fix his own and to remove them when he is vacating the house. If the owner repossesses the house before the term is over, he must repay a fair proportion of the rent. A land holder can give his land on lease for the construction of houses and other buildings. Such buildings remain rent – free for eight to ten years, after which they become the land holder’s property.

Even with a plethora of slaves, hired help is necessary, especially during the harvests. The man hiring may or may not make the completion of the work a binding contract, and if so can ask for a surety or collateral. Hired cattle are used for ploughing, drawing water, threshing,  etc. The Codex has fixed wages for seed planters, ox drivers, labourers, etc., hiring charges for oxes and donkeys. Flocks and herds of sheeps are given to shepherds against receipts for taking the animals to pastures.  The shepherds get a statutory wage and are responsible for the care of the flocks and herds. They are liable to restore ox for ox, sheep for sheep, and are required to breed them satisfactorily. If he is less than honest in using the flock, the loss is to be compensated tenfold. If he is just negligent, he is required to make good the losses. If his flock gets into a field of crops, he has to pay for the losses fourfold;  for standing crops (about to be harvested) the compensation is twelvefold.  Losses due to disease or wild animal attack are to be borne by the owner.

Commerce  &  Trade

Commercial contracts generally stipulate payments in cash, in the currency of the place concerned, such as Babylon, Assyria, Larsa, Carchemish and so on. Payment in kind, however,  is common according to a statutory scale given in the Codex. Anyway, loan is given to a person and its recovery has to be from him. No distraint on the debtor’s grain or animals is allowed. If  there is such a forcible seizure, the debtor has to return the things taken.  He is fined and loses his claim altogether. A man charged for non – payment of debt  is allowed to nominate as mancipium or hostage to work off the debt, his wife, a child, or slave. The hostage can be held for only three years, and if the mancipium dies during that time due to natural causes the creditor is not responsible. If, however, the death is due to the cruelty of the creditor, he has to replace a son for a son or pay for a slave. Property is often pledged for a debt. Such property is to be of an intrinsic value equal to the debt. Personal guarantees are also common in which the guarantor himself is liable if the debtor fails to pay.

Having regard to the extensive trade carried throughout  Babylonia and beyond, the Codex lays down comprehensive rules for its conduct. A merchant normally gives his goods to a travelling agent to find markets for his goods or finances him for journeys beyond the limits of the empire in camel trains or caravans. The agent has to give a receipt for the goods received in detail. Claims are to be made on that basis, and the agent is liable to return double of what he received even if there is no profit. He is, however, exempted for losses due to robbery or extortion during his travels. If the agent cheats, he has to pay three times the amount involved;  for the lending mercant the fine is six times. The normal practice is to share the profit as per the contract, usually on a 50 – 50 basis.  The caravans  take the goods to the agent upfront, for which they give a receipt. They are fully responsible for the goods and obtain receipts on delivery. Failure to do so means paying a fine five times the value of the goods transported. He is paid his charges in advance.  Warehousing, especially of grain, is one – sixtieth of the value of the material stored. The storekeeper is to take all risks and pays double for any shortage, but claims are not admitted unless backed by a properly witnessed receipt. The Euphrates River and the canals carry a lot of water – borne traffic,  and ships (their tonnage determined by te amount of grain they carry) are continuously hired. Shipbuilding charges and the hiring rates for its crew are given in the Codex, and one year’s seaworthiness of the vessel is mandatory. The safety of the ship and the freight on board is the responsibility of the captain; he has to replace all losses. Disorderly conduct or treasonable activity in a tavern is not tolerated where the price of the liquor is fixed. The tavern – keeper is to report such matters and take the offenders to the police on the pain of death.  It is common to pay through a banker, and written drafts against deposits are accepted. Bonds for payment are accepted. Interests for overdue loans are very high. There are instances of even temples charging 30 percent.

Marriage       

The earlier practice of regarding marriage as a form of purchase continues, but is essentially a contract to be man and wife. Relatives arrange the marriage, the groom’s father pays the bride – price and the suitor presents this to the bride’s father along with other gifts. These are returned to the groom upon marriage together with the dowry, which is the daughter’s share of her father’s property. The bride -  price is  more than that of a slave, but varies widely depending on the status of the parties. If the father refuses to give her daughter in marriage after receiving the presents, he is to return double of what he received. If the groom changes his mind, he loses all that he has given as presents. Lands and such may be given as dowry, but usually it consisted of personal effects and household furniture. It remains with her for life and passes on to her children thereafter. The marriage is necessarily to be conducted by a freeman and is a ceremonial  joining of hands and the utterance of some formula of acceptance on the part of the bridegroom, as “I am the son of nobles, silver and gold shall fill thy lap, thou shalt be my wife, I will be thy husband. Like the fruit of a garden I will give thee offspring.”  According to the Codex, the marriage is not valid unless there is a specific contract  stating  the consequences to which each party is liable for repudiating the other. But the contract may contain provisions not in the Codex, such as, that the wife is to act as a maidservant to her mother-in-law, or to a first wife. The man and wife form a unit as to external responsibility, especially for debt. The man is responsible for debts contracted by his wife, even before her marriage, as well as for his own; but he can use her as a mancipium.  For this reason, the marriage contract  has the provision that the wife is not to be seized for her husband’s pre – nuptial debts and vice versa.  A man may make his wife a settlement by deed of gift, which gives her a life interest in part of his property, and he may allow her the right to bequeath it to a favourite child; but she is never allowed to leave it to her family. Even after marriage, she  remains a member of her father’s house – she is rarely named wife of A; usually daughter of B, or mother of C.

The man has the option to divorce, when he is required to give everything he has received in the marriage and the custody of the children to the wife.  Thereafter, he has to assign her the income  of field, or garden, as well as goods, to maintain herself and children until they become adults. She shares equally with the children the allowance (as also probably  his estate in the event of his death) and is free to marry again.  If  there is no children,  the dowry  is returned and the wife gets back  the bride – price. If  no bride – price has been paid, he has to pay her  a mina  of silver, written in the contract as forfeit  for repudiating a wife.  A  bad wife (undefined) has no such privileges. The man is permitted to send her away keeping the dowry and the children with him. The worse thing is that he can downgrade her to a slave in his house with just food and clothing for maintenance.  She  can retaliate by charging him with cruelty and neglect,  and if she proves her point  gets a judicial separation along with her dowry. There is no other  compensation  for her. If she proves wrong,  she is drowned.  The marriage is dissolved  if  a man  wilfully deserts his wife or is exiled. If he returns, he has no claim on her property and most probably not even on his own.  A widow stays on in her husband’s  house,  bringing up the children. She can  remarry  only after obtaining  judicial consent. In that event,  the judge checks and makes a list of every item  in the deceased’s estate and gives it  to her and her new husband in trust for the children. They are not permitted to sell or give away anything mentioned in the list.If she does not remarry, she lives on in her husband’s house and gets a child’s share on the division of his estate, when the children comes of age. She still retains her dowry and any settlement deeded to her by her husband, which goes to her children as inheritance. If she has remarried, all her children get an equal share in her dowry, but the first husband’s gift fell to his children, or to her selection among them, if she is so empowered. 

Children

Normally, monogamy is the rule, the exception is when a childless wife allows her husband to live with a maid (who is no wife) to bear him children.  The children are regarded as her own, and she remains the mistress of her maid. She is permitted to degrade the maid to slavery again for insolent behaviour, but is not allowed to sell her. If the wife gets a maid to live with her husband,  the Codex  does not allow the husband to take a concubine;  if she does not, he is free to do so. The concubine is a co-wife, though not of the same rank as the first wife; the first wife has no power over her.  A concubine is a free woman, is often given dowry for marriage, and her children are legitimate. She can only be divorced on the same conditions as a wife. If  a wife becomes a chronic invalid, the husband is bound to maintain her in the home they have made together, unless she prefers to take her dowry and return to her father’s house.  A man with an invalid wife is free to remarry. In all these instances, the children are legitimate and lawful heirs.There is, of course, no restraint on a man having children by a slave girl. Such children are born free, and their mother is not for sale. She becomes  free upon her master’s death. Her children are legitimized by their father’s acknowledgment before witnesses, and are often adopted. Thus adopted, they rank equally in sharing their father’s estate; but if not adopted, the first wife’s children divide the estate and take the first choice. The  vestal virgins are not  supposed to have children, even though they are permitted to marry and often do so. The provision of a wife giving her husband a maid in the Codex is also for this reason. Free women are permitted to marry slaves and are eligible for dowry for the marriage. Their children are free, and after the slave’s death, the wife takes her dowry and half of what she and her husband have acquired in wedlock for self and children; the master taking the other half, as his slave’s heir. A father has control over his children until they are married. He has a right to what they earn by their labour, in return for their keep. He has the authority to  hire them out and receive their wages,  pledge them for debt, even sell them outright. Mothers have the same rights in the absence of the father; elder brothers, when both parents are dead. A father has no right to ask his married children for support, but they retain the right to inherit on his death. A daughter is under the absolute control of her father; he decides everything for her;  often when she is a child.  He has the power to give her in marriage, dedicate her to the service of some god as a vestal or a hierodule; or give her as a concubine. She has no choice in these matters. When she is of age,  she can opt to become a votary or nun (may be to escape from an uncongenial marriage), and the father seemingly has no power to stop her from being one.

In all such instances, the father may provide her with a dowry.  If he does not, on his death her brothers are required to do so, giving her a full child’s share if a wife, a concubine or a vestal, but one-third of a child’s share if she is a hierodule or a Marduk  priestess. As the god Marduk holds a pre – eminent position in the Babylonian pantheon,  the priestesses in his temple have the privilege of exemption from state dues, and absolute control over their properties. All other daughters have only a life interest in their dowry.  It  reverts  to their family, if they are without any  children, or is inherited by their children when they have some. A father may decide to  execute a deed giving the daughter the power to leave her property to a favourite brother or sister.  Generally,  brothers look after the  properties of their sisters. If  she is not happy with them, she can appoint an agent or a steward. A married woman’s estate is managed by her husband. Apparently, a son also gets some share of  his  father’s  estate on marriage; but instead of leaving he brings his wife to live there. Usually, this happens in child  marriages.

Punishments 

The cardinal principle in criminal justice is the lex talionis –  eye for eye, tooth for tooth, limb for limb is the penalty for attacking and injuring an amelu. In a symbolic way this is reflected when the hand raised against a father is cut off, the eye which pries into forbidden secrets is blinded, and the ear (the organ of hearing and symbol of obedience) of a slave is removed for hitting a freeman.  Likewise, a surgeon whose negligence resulted in a loss of life or limb and a brander removing a slave’s identification mark lose their hands. False accusation, consequent to which someone else may have died, is punishable by death. The perjurer bringing false witnesses to put someone else to death also gets a sentence of death. The death penalty is freely awarded for theft, and other crimes considered as similar to that, like entry into the palace or the temple treasury with the intent to steal; unlawful purchase from a minor or slave; selling stolen goods or receiving the same; and kidnapping. For claiming ownership of goods falsely; for helping and sheltering runaway slaves or detaining and appropriating them;  for committing highway robbery; for dishonestly selling drinks; for causing death of a householder by bad building;  and a host of other similar crimes the penalty is death.  How the sentence is to be carried out or the method of execution is not specified in the Codex.  Anyway, gibbeting or hanging from a post at the scene of the crime for burglary; burning a vestal for entering a tavern; and drowning a man for rape are the punishments mentioned. Interesting applications of the principle of lex talionis are the sentences of death given to a creditor’s son for his father having caused the death of a debtor’s son as mancipium; to a builder’s son for his father’s responsibility in causing the death of a house-owner’s son by building the house badly; and to a man’s daughter because her father caused the death of another man’s daughter. It is but natural for contracts not to include such criminal developments in the text as a rule.  The marriage contract is an exception where it is specifically stated that the wife repudiating her husband is to be killed by putting her to sword or strangling or drowning. It is not clear who is the executioner in such instances.

An amelu beating up badly another amelu (who is superior to him in status) gets as punishment sixty strokes of an ox – hide scourge or whip.  Saying slanderous things about a married woman or vestal leads to the branding of the speaker, which is as bad as degradation to a slave. A corrupt judge loses his office permanently; while spendthrift wives and unfilial children are awarded slavery. Imprisonment is not recognized by the Codex, but it happens to be quite common. Most common among all penalties is monetary compensation or fine. Fines are imposed for corporal injuries to a muskinu or to a slave (paid to his master); for damages done to property, or for breach of contract. Goods appropriated, illegally bought, or damaged by neglect, are not only returned to the owner, but also are usually accompanied by a fine, giving it the form of multiple restoration. This can be double, treble, fourfold, fivefold, sixfold, tenfold, twelvefold, even thirtyfold, depending on the enormity of the offence.

Intent is an important matter for consideration according to the Codex.  Someone  killing a man in a quarrel has to swear that he has not done so intentionally, and he is then required only to pay a fine  depending on the status of the deceased.  Although, the Codex does not say what would be the penalty of murder, but death is invariably the punishment given to a murderer. If an  assault  results in  injury only and is unintentional, then the assailant in a quarrel has to pay the expenses for recovery.  A brander, coaxed to remove a slave’s identification mark, has to say under oath that he is not to be blamed, and is set free. If a mancipium dies due to  natural causes while under the creditor’s control, the creditor is not punished. Generally, accidents are regarded as a matter of chance unless proved that proper care has not been taken before its occurrence. A deserted wife living with someone else due to poverty is not punished.

Carelessness and negligence, however, are not excused. The negligent surgeon loses his hands , and so does a careless brander. Unsafe houses collapsing on their occupants are not only rebuilt, but also compensated for the properties damaged thereby. If there is loss of life, the offence is further compounded and the principle lex talionis is applied.  If  during the warranty period of one year a new boat is found defective, the boat – builder has to make it good again. 

Status is another important matter for consideration in Codex, the position of the alleged accused is taken into account – mere suspicion is not a valid cause for conviction. The criminal has to be apprehended while he is committing the crime.  A man is not charged with theft, unless the stolen things are found in his pssession.           

.

In a lawsuit, the plaintiffs argue their own cases – it seems there are no lawyers. The appeal, however, is in writing; obviously, helped by a notary in its drafting.  The judge examines the plea, calls the  other parties before him, and sent for the witnesses. If they are not available, the case is adjourned and summons are issued for the witnesses to appear before the judge.

.

Important lawsuits, especially those involving life and death, are tried by a bench of judges. The judges are assisted by a group of elders who support the verdict, but whose exact function is not quite clear. Deliberations over agreements, declarations and non-contentious cases are usually carried out  by one judge and twelve elders. The disputing parties and their witnesses are put on oath. Dishonest witnesses get the same punishment as the person on trial.  When matters are beyond the knowledge of people, like the guilt or innocence of  someone believed to be indulging in magic  or a  wife under suspicion, the ordeal by water is carried out.  The suspect is forced to jump  into the sacred river, when the innocent is expected to swim to safety and the guilty is expected to  drown. When no witnesses are there to support the accused, such as highway robbery, the price of a slave obtained abroad, etc., he is given an opportunity to clear himself of the charge by an oath upon his innocence. However, a written evidence is deemed to be the ultimate proof, and its loss considerably reduces the force of the appeal. In such instances, great efforts are made to convince the judges of its existence  by the terms of the affidavit  of the witnesses to it. If satisfied, the judge  issues an order that whenever found it has to be brought before the authorities. There are instances when the court has gone to see the  property along with the sacred symbols needed for making the oaths. The verdict is embodied  in writing, sealed and witnessed by the judges, the elders, witnesses, and a scribe.  The parties are given copies of the verdict after swearing that they would abide by the conditions stated threin. The scribe takes one copy for storage  in the archives.  Appeals to the king are permitted, and there are plenty of such examples. The court in Babylon appears to be superrior to those in the provincial cities, and a defendant has the right   to answer the charge before the local court, and refuse to plead at Babylon.  Lastly, offences not included in the Codex are severely denounced, and the offenders are warned that they are likely to be punished by  “the hand of God” as opposed to “the hand of the king.”

Excerpts from the Codex, Translated by Leonard William King, 1910

1. If any one ensnare another, putting a ban upon him, but he can not prove it, then he that ensnared him shall be put to death.

5. If a judge try a case, reach a decision, and present his judgment in writing; if later error shall appear in his decision, and it be through his own fault, then he shall pay twelve times the fine set by him in the case, and he shall be publicly removed from the judge’s bench, and never again shall he sit there to render judgement.

8. If any one steal cattle or sheep, or an ass, or a pig or a goat, if it belong to a god or to the court, the thief shall pay thirtyfold therefor; if they belonged to a freed man of the king he shall pay tenfold; if the thief has nothing with which to pay he shall be put to death.

15. If any one take a male or female slave of the court, or a male or female slave of a freed man, outside the city gates, he shall be put to death.

21. If any one break a hole into a house (break in to steal), he shall be put to death before that hole and be buried.

36. The field, garden, and house of a chieftain, of a man, or of one subject to quit-rent, can not be sold.

56. If a man let in the water, and the water overflow the plantation of his neighbor, he shall pay ten gur of corn for every ten gan of land.

103. If, while on the journey, an enemy take away from him anything that he had, the broker shall swear by God and be free of obligation.

110. If a “sister of a god” open a tavern, or enter a tavern to drink, then shall this woman be burned to death

121. If any one store corn in another man’s house he shall pay him storage at the rate of one gur for every five ka of corn per year.

126. If any one who has not lost his goods state that they have been lost, and make false claims: if he claim his goods and amount of injury before God, even though he has not lost them, he shall be fully compensated for all his loss claimed. (I.e., the oath is all that is needed.)

134. If any one be captured in war and there is not sustenance in his house, if then his wife go to another house this woman shall be held blameless.

142. If a woman quarrel with her husband, and say: “You are not congenial to me,” the reasons for her prejudice must be presented. If she is guiltless, and there is no fault on her part, but he leaves and neglects her, then no guilt attaches to this woman, she shall take her dowry and go back to her father’s house.

143. If she is not innocent, but leaves her husband, and ruins her house, neglecting her husband, this woman shall be cast into the water.

153. If the wife of one man on account of another man has their mates (her husband and the other man’s wife) murdered, both of them shall be impaled.

160. If a man bring chattels into the house of his father-in-law, and pay the “purchase price” (for his wife): if then the father of the girl say: “I will not give you my daughter,” he shall give him back all that he brought with him.

175. If a State slave or the slave of a freed man marry the daughter of a free man, and children are born, the master of the slave shall have no right to enslave the children of the free.

176. If, however, a State slave or the slave of a freed man marry a man’s daughter, and after he marries her she bring a dowry from a father’s house, if then they both enjoy it and found a household, and accumulate means, if then the slave die, then she who was free born may take her dowry, and all that her husband and she had earned; she shall divide them into two parts, one-half the master for the slave shall take, and the other half shall the free-born woman take for her children. If the free-born woman had no gift she shall take all that her husband and she had earned and divide it into two parts; and the master of the slave shall take one-half and she shall take the other for her children.

195. If a son strike his father, his hands shall be hewn off.

200. If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out.

206. If during a quarrel one man strike another and wound him, then he shall swear, “I did not injure him wittingly,” and pay the physicians.

226. If a barber, without the knowledge of his master, cut the sign of a slave on a slave not to be sold, the hands of this barber shall be cut off.

229 If a builder build a house for some one, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death.

265. If a herdsman, to whose care cattle or sheep have been entrusted, be guilty of fraud and make false returns of the natural increase, or sell them for money, then shall he be convicted and pay the owner ten times the loss.

273. If any one hire a day laborer, he shall pay him from the New Year until the fifth month (April to August, when days are long and the work hard) six gerahs in money per day; from the sixth month to the end of the year he shall give him five gerahs per day.

282. If a slave say to his master: “You are not my master,” if they convict him his master shall cut off his ear.

Hittite  Laws — ca 1600 BCE

It is believed that the Hittites were the first to introduce constitutional monarchy in an era when kings were considered to be vice regents of god.  There was a group known as pankus, who kept a close watch on the king’s activities.  In addition, the king and his family had to often face a rebellious aristrocracy.  With a monarchy  composed of such elements, no wonder that the  Hittites  made tremendous  progress in  legislation  and law. A collection of about 200 laws written in the Hittite cuneiform script was found at Hattusa in western Asia Minor.  It is a single work in two tablets containing the laws  of different periods of the Empire and indicating a steady progress towards mild punishments compared to the generally harsh retributions of the neighbouring contemporary kingdoms. For instance, the punishment for stealing was to compel the offender to give back the things stolen as opposed to death elsewhere. Copies of the laws were subsequently found written in Old, Middle and Late Hittite, thereby showing that the laws were in use as long as the Empire was in existence (ca 16th to 11th century BCE). One of the earlier law awards drawing and quartering for an offence relating to agriculture. Slaves, however, were punished severely. Their owners had the right to kill them at will. Generally, however, an animal was given in return for the slave along with some compensation. An interesting clause is the importance given to the area lying within the bend in the river Halys, regarded as forming the core of the Empire. It states that the reward for the capture of a fleeing slave on the other side of the river is more than that given for capture on this side. Rape was considered to be a capital offence, and a slave disobeying the owner or practising magic was doomed to die. The Hittite laws are in the form of case laws, that is, a situation is given in the beginning and a ruling follows. They are structured as in, if xxx…., then yyyy…. They are not issued as commands, like, you shall not…. Some examples :-

If  a  man burns down the house of another man, then he has to build the house and give it to the owner. He is not responsible for the loss of life and property due to the fire. 

If a slave burns down the house of a man, then his owner has to compensate for it, and the slave is given to the owner after severing his nose and ears. If the owner does not compensate, then he has to give up the slave.

If in a quarrel a man or a woman is killed, then the offender has to provide four men or women  in restitution.

If a copper box is made by a smith, then he is paid one hundred pecks of barley. If it is a copper dish weighing two pounds, then he gets one peck of emmer.

If in a quarrel a man kills a female or male slave, then he is to give the owner two female or male slaves.

If a slave gets a groom among free men for his daughter after giving the bride price, then the groom is not to be considered a slave.

If a man injures another, then he has to look after the injured until he recovers, pay the expenses, and provide some one to do the housework of the injured. After recovery , he has to pay three shekels of silver.

If a man disagrees with the king, then he and his family members are decimated; if he questions a lord, then his head is cut off. If a slave rebels against his owner, then he is buried alive.

Mosaic  Law or the Laws of Moses  –  ca 16th Century BCE

These are the laws stated to be revealed by god to Moses on Mount Sinai for the Hebrew People or the Israelites, while they were  wandering around the desert for 40 years after getting out of  Egypt due to Pharaoh’s persecutions. The Torah is the collection of those revealed 613 instructions or mitzvots, which form the first five books of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh and of the Old Testament of the Bible of the Christians. Actually, the divisions are not quite clear cut. Torah is also used in a general sense to include Judaism’s oral and written laws containing all the  authoritative religious teachings over the ages, and is called the Five Books of Moses. In addition it is called the Pentateuch, after the Greek word meaning five containers or scroll cases in which the five books (scrolls) were kept. These books are :  Genesis; Exodus; Leviticus; Numbers; and Deuteronomy (Discourses). The story of creation is narrated in the Genesis along with the tale of Noah’s Ark; Exodus is the narrative of the Hebrew people’s journey from Egypt to the Promised Land under the leadership of Moses; and Leviticus is the priest’s manual for rules and sacrifices. The Numbers gives a census of the Jews reaching towards the end of their journey, while Deuteronomy is a near recapitulation of all that has been stated in the first four books. Incidentally, Moses could not reach the goal he set for his followers to attain because of his disobedience to god in the final stage of the journey even though he lived for 120 years. According to some archaeologists, Moses seems to be a fictional character because of the absence of any evidence like shards of pottery, tablets, etc. relating to him. On the basis of the stories of him in the Bible, he is criticised by many for his intolerance and the harshness of his laws proclaiming death for offences considered to be minor subsequently. It seems, the most well known among his critics is Thomas Paine, who wrote :      

“Among the most detestable villains in history, you could not find one worse than Moses. Here is an order, attributed to ‘God’ to butcher the boys, to massacre the mothers and to debauch and rape the daughters.”

John Stewart Mill in his essay, On Liberty, called the Mosaic Law “a barbaric law for a barbaric people.” Anyway, it is the belief of Orthodox Judaism that the Mosaic Law is applicable to Jews even today.  Moses is venerated by Jews and Roman Catholics, and is regarded as a Prophet by the Muslims and Bah’ais.  The following excerpts from the Exodus begin with the rules for social conduct (including the famous Ten Commandments), though no orderly sequence of numbering has been followed, and end with the civil laws. 

1 And God  spake all these words, saying,
2 I am the LORD thy God, which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.
3 Thou shalt have no other gods before me.

4 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth:
5 Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for I the LORD thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me;
6 And shewing mercy unto thousands of them that love me, and keep my commandments.
7 Thou shalt not take the name of the LORD thy God in vain; for the LORD will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain.

8 Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy.
9 Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work:
10 But the seventh day is the sabbath of the LORD thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates:
11 For in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it.

12 Honour thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee.
13 Thou shalt not kill.
14 Thou shalt not commit adultery.
15 Thou shalt not steal.
16 Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.
17 Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neighbour’s.

                                                  Civil Laws

12 He that smiteth a man, so that he die, shall be surely put to death.
13 And if a man lie not in wait, but God deliver him into his hand; then I will appoint thee a place whither he shall flee.
14 But if a man come presumptuously upon his neighbour, to slay him with guile; thou shalt take him from mine altar, that he may die.
15 And he that smiteth his father, or his mother, shall be surely put to death.
16 And he that stealeth a man, and selleth him, or if he be found in his hand, he shall surely be put to death.
17 And he that curseth his father, or his mother, shall surely be put to death.
18 And if men strive together, and one smite another with a stone, or with his fist, and he die not, but keepeth his bed:
19 If he rise again, and walk abroad upon his staff, then shall he that smote him be quit: only he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall cause him to be thoroughly healed.
20 And if a man smite his servant, or his maid, with a rod, and he die under his hand; he shall be surely punished.
21 Notwithstanding, if he continue a day or two, he shall not be punished: for he is his money.

23 And if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life for life,
24 Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot,
25 Burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe.
26 And if a man smite the eye of his servant, or the eye of his maid, that it perish; he shall let him go free for his eye’s sake.
27 And if he smite out his manservant’s tooth, or his maidservant’s tooth; he shall let him go free for his tooth’s sake.

7 If a man shall deliver unto his neighbour money or stuff to keep, and it be stolen out of the man?s house; if the thief be found, let him pay double.
8 If the thief be not found, then t

Article by Abigail Rendon

Every fundraising group has to deal every time with the objective of finding successful money raising ideas. However, the best idea doesn’t have to be the most complicated. Actually it’s very simple: just have fun! And let everyone else have fun also. It doesn’t matter what type of campaign you’re administrating, as long as everyone is having fun success will become unavoidable. The following 5 reliable ways to having fun during a fundraiser can be easily applied to any scenario:

- Give a reward to your volunteers: If you offer interesting incentives and rewards to your contributing volunteers they might have more fun. The idea is to generate a competitive but pleasant situation. The reward doesn’t have to be one million dollars; a simple gift such as a custom trophy is more than sufficient.

- Plan: Before even starting your campaign silicone bracelets, plan to have a good time. Think about a day’s fundraising activities and how you can make every part of the process pleasant to work with. Always ask yourself the key question: How can I make this amusing? It doesn’t always have to be tedious work.

- Show your appreciation: keep reminding the donators and volunteers that assist you that you are very grateful for their help, you can accomplish this by simply saying to them continually the words “thank you”. Keep smiling all the way through and everybody else will smile back at you. Be sure to provide snacks and drinks to keep your supporters actively in action.

- Make a movie: You can film an entertaining movie about your fundraising pursuit and have everyone appear on it. Make it a sort of a fun documentary in which everyone gets to tell their story and experience with the fundraiser. Give it a humorous title related to the theme of your campaign. Then you can throw a party where everybody can watch the movie.

- Challenge your team: make a promise to your helpers about you doing something daring or funny if the whole team achieves a particular goal. For example doing the chicken dance or wearing a funny outfit for a day. This will give your volunteers a very desirable incentive to do good work.

Everyone knows that people works best when the surrounding situation makes them feel comfortable, happy and amused. As a leader, stimulating fun into your supporters has the potential of multiplying your group’s rewards!

About the Author

Abigail Rendon

http://www.wristbandswithamessage.com